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Police brutality is the excessive and unwarranted use of force by law enforcement against an individual or a group. It is an extreme form of police misconduct and is a civil rights violation. Police brutality includes, but is not limited to, asphyxiation, beatings, shootings, racism, "improper takedowns, and unwarranted use of tasers."^[1]^[2]

History

The origin of modern policing can be traced back to 18th century France. By the 19th and early 20th centuries, many nations had established modern police departments. Early records suggest that labor strikes were the first large-scale incidents of police brutality in the United States, including events like the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the Pullman Strike of 1894, the Lawrence Textile Strike of 1912, the Ludlow Massacre of 1914, the Great Steel Strike of 1919, and the Hanapepe Massacre of 1924.

The term "police brutality" was first used in Britain in the mid-19th century, by The Puppet-Show magazine(a short-lived rival to Punch) in September 1848, when they wrote:

Scarcely a week passes without their committing some offence which disgusts everybody but the magistrates. Boys are bruised by their ferocity, women insulted by their ruffianism; and that which brutality has done, perjury denies, and magisterial stupidity suffers to go unpunished. [...] And police brutality is becoming one of our most "venerated institutions!"^[3]

The first use of the term in the American press was in 1872 when the Chicago Tribune^[4] reported the beating of a civilian who was under arrest at the Harrison Street Police Station.

In the United States, it is common for marginalized groups to perceive the police as oppressors, rather than protectors or enforcers of the law, due to the statistically disproportionate number of minority incarcerations.^[5]

Hubert Locke wrote:

When used in print or as the battle cry in a black power rally, police brutality can by implication cover several practices, from calling a citizen by his or her first name to death by a policeman's bullet. What the average citizen thinks of when he hears the term, however, is something midway between these two occurrences, something more akin to what the police profession knows as "alley court"—the wanton vicious beating of a person in custody, usually while handcuffed, and usually taking place somewhere between the scene of the arrest and the station house.^[6]

Sometimes riots, e.g. the 1992 Los Angeles riots, are a reaction to police brutality.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Examples

Causes

The persistence of police brutality in many nations can be linked to a collective failure of the criminal justice system. Governments enacting "hard on crime" policies, poor police training, and a lack of legal repercussions for officers who use excessive force against civilians all increase the likelihood of police brutality occurring. Additionally, social issues like racial discrimination and poverty can exacerbate the brutality and its effects on marginalized communities.

Hard on Drugs Campaigns

In nations with a reputation for having a high number of drug-related issues, including gang violence, drug trafficking, and overdose deaths, one common solution that government will enact is a collective campaign against drugs that spans the entirety of the state's establishment. Changes to address these issues encompass education, bureaucracy, and, most notably, law enforcement policy and tactics. Law enforcement agencies expand and receive more funding to attack the drug problems in communities. Acceptance of harsher policing tactics grows as well, as an "any means necessary" philosophy develops within the law enforcement community and the militarization of local police forces.^[10] However, many studies have concluded that these efforts are in vain, as the drug market has grown in such nations despite anti-drug policies. For example, in the United States, critics of the War on Drugs waged by the American government have been very vocal about the ineffectiveness of the policy, citing an increase in drug-related crimes and overdoses since President Nixon first introduced this policy.^[11]

Legal System

A type of government failure that can result in the normalization of police brutality is a lack of accountability and repercussions for officers mistreating civilians. While it is currently commonplace for civilians to hold officers accountable by recording them, the actual responsibility of police oversight rests heavily on the criminal justice system of a given nation, as police represent the enforcement of the law. One method of increasing police accountability that has become more common is the employment of body cameras as a part of police uniforms.^[12] However, the effectiveness of body cameras has been called into question due to the lack of transparency shown in police brutality cases where the footage is withheld from the public. In many cases of police brutality, the criminal justice system has no policy in place to condemn or prohibit police brutality. Certain nations have laws that permit lawful, violent treatment of civilians, like qualified immunity, which protects officers from being sued for their use of violence if their actions can be justified under the law.^[13]

Police officers are legally permitted to use force. Jerome Herbert Skolnick writes in regards to dealing largely with disorderly elements of the society, some people^[who?] working in law enforcement may gradually develop an attitude or sense of authority over society, particularly under traditional reaction-based policing models; in some cases, the police believe that they are above the law.^[14]

There are many reasons why police officers can sometimes be excessively aggressive. It is thought that psychopathy makes some officers more inclined to use excessive force than others. In one study, police psychologists surveyed officers who had used excessive force. The information obtained allowed the researchers to develop five unique types of officers, only one of which was similar to the bad apple stereotype. These include personality disorders; previous traumatic job-related experience; young, inexperienced, or authoritarian officers; officers who learn inappropriate patrol styles; and officers with personal problems. Schrivers categorized these groups and separated the group that was the most likely to use excessive force.^[15] However, this "bad apple paradigm" is considered by some to be an "easy way out". A broad report commissioned by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police on the causes of misconduct in policing calls it "a simplistic explanation that permits the organization and senior management to blame corruption on individuals and individual faults – behavioural, psychological, background factors, and so on, rather than addressing systemic factors."^[16] The report continues to discuss the systemic factors, which include:

Pressures to conform to certain aspects of "police culture", such as the Blue Code of Silence, which can "sustain an oppositional criminal subculture protecting the interests of police who violate the law"^[17] and a "'we-they' perspective in which outsiders are viewed with suspicion or distrust"^[16]
Command and control structures with a rigid hierarchical foundation ("results indicate that the more rigid the authoritarian hierarchy, the lower the scores on a measure of ethical decision-making" concludes one study reviewed in the report);^[18] and
Deficiencies in internal accountability mechanisms (including internal investigation processes).^[16]

The use of force by police officers is not kept in check in many jurisdictions by the issuance of a use of force continuum,^[19] which describes levels of force considered appropriate in direct response to a suspect's behavior. This power is granted by the government, with few if any limits set out in statutory law as well as common law.

Violence used by police can be excessive despite being lawful, especially in the context of political repression. Police brutality is often used to refer to violence used by the police to achieve politically desirable ends (terrorism) and, therefore, when none should be used at all according to widely held values and cultural norms in the society (rather than to refer to excessive violence used where at least some may be considered justifiable).

Studies show that there are officers who believe the legal system they serve is failing and that they must pick up the slack. This is known as "vigilantism", where the officer-involved may think the suspect deserves more punishment than what they may have to serve under the court system.^[20]

During high-speed pursuits of suspects, officers can become angry and filled with adrenaline, which can affect their judgment when they finally apprehend the suspect. The resulting loss of judgment and heightened emotional state can result in inappropriate use of force. The effect is colloquially known as "high-speed pursuit syndrome".^[21]

Effects of police brutality in the United States

Police brutality is the misuse of power by the police force to intentionally harm individuals.^{[citation needed]} The excessive force imposed by police officers has increased^[22] over the past decade and caused social misinterpretations of the role that police officers play in the community.

In 2015, the percentage of people who have confidence in the police hit its lowest since 1993 at 52 percent.^[23] Of this 52 percent, Democrats saw the biggest drop in confidence. Democrats' confidence in police dropped to 42% from 2017–2018 compared with 2012–2013, a larger change than for any other subgroup. Over the same period, Independents' (51%) and Republicans' (69%) confidence in the police has not changed.^[23] The number of black people that trust the police in 2017–2018 averaged 30 percent, well below the national average of 53% and much lower than for any other subgroup.^{[citation needed]}

Firearms usage

Individual state statutes and police department policies generally say that police officers are legally allowed to shoot in the instance that they feel the need to protect their lives or an innocent life^{[citation needed]} or to prevent the suspect from escaping and posing a dangerous threat to bystanders in society.^{[citation needed]} The Supreme Court Decision of Tennessee v. Garner made it possible to shoot a fleeing suspect only if they may cause harm to innocent people to prevent officers from shooting every suspect that tries to escape.

Stereotypes

Lorie Fridell, Associate Professor of Criminology at University of South Florida, states that "racial profiling was the number one issue facing police [in the 1990s]", which led her to two conclusions: "bias in policing was not just a few officers in a few departments and, overwhelmingly, the police in this country are well-intentioned." According to a Department of Justice report, "Officers, like the rest of us, have an implicit bias linking blacks to crime. So the black crime implicit bias might be implicated in some of the use of deadly force against African-Americans in our country".^[24]

A 2014 experiment conducted on white undergraduate female students showed that there was a higher degree of fear of racial minorities. The paper concluded that people with a higher fear of racial minorities and dehumanization had "a lower threshold for shooting Black relative to White and East Asian targets".^[25]

High-profile police deaths of black men like Eric Garner in New York City, Tamir Rice in Cleveland, and Freddie Gray in Baltimore have increased distrust in the black community towards the police.^{[citation needed]} High-profile police killings have led to the creation of social organizations, such as the Black Lives Matter movement founded in 2013.^{[citation needed]}

While the Justice Department reported that Cleveland police officers used "excessive deadly force, including shootings and head strikes with impact weapons; unnecessary, excessive, and retaliatory force, including Tasers, chemical sprays, and their fists" on the victim, there was no real repercussions from their actions.^[26]

Black Americans and the US police

In a report released concerning the shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, the Justice Department admitted to the Ferguson's police department's pattern of racial bias. The department argued that it is typically an effort to ticket as many low-income black residents as possible in an attempt to raise local budget revenue through fines and court fees. The Justice Department explained police encounters could get downright abusive when the person being questioned by the police officers becomes disrespectful or challenges their authority.^{[citation needed]}

The Department of Justice also released a statement that confronted police officers' susceptibility to implicit bias: One of the things they looked at was "threat perception failure", where an officer may believe that the person was armed and it turned out not to be the case. These failures were observed to occur more frequently when the suspect was black.^{[citation needed]}

Statistics

Data released by the US Bureau of Justice Statistics (2011) showed that from 2003 to 2009 at least 4,813 people died while being arrested by local police. Of the deaths classified as law enforcement homicides, there were 2,876 deaths; of those, 1,643 or 57.1% of the deaths were "people of color".^[27]^[28]

According to the police violence tracking website fatalencounters.org showed the records of over 29,000 people were killed in police interactions across the US since 2000.^[29] In 2016, police killed 574 White Americans, 266 African Americans, 183 Hispanics, 24 Native Americans, and 21 Asians. However, for every million in population, police killed 10.13 Native Americans, 6.66 African Americans, 3.23 Hispanics, 2.9 White Americans, and 1.17 Asians.^[30]

According to the 2020 Police Violence Report, 1,126 people were killed by police, of which in 16 cases police officers were charged with a crime. 620 of the deaths began with police officers responding to reports of non-violent offenses or no crime. 81 people killed by the police were unarmed.^[31]

Sam Sinyangwe, founder of the Mapping Police Violence project, stated in 2015 that "black people are three times more likely to be killed by police in the United States than white people. More unarmed black people were killed by police than unarmed white people last year, even though only 14% of the population are black people."^[24] According to the Mapping Police Violence project, in 2019, there were only 27 days where police in the United States didn't kill someone.^[32]

Critics of police brutality also note that sometimes this abuse of force or power can extend to police officer civilian life as well. For example, critics note that women in around 40% of police officer families have experienced domestic violence^[33] and that police officers are convicted of misdemeanors and felonies at a rate of more than six times higher than concealed carry weapon (CCW) permit holders.^[34]

Global prevalence

The Amnesty International 2007 report on human rights also documented widespread police misconduct in many other countries, especially countries with authoritarian regimes.^[35]
In the UK, the reports into the death of New Zealand teacher and anti-racism campaigner Blair Peach in 1979 was published on the Metropolitan Police website on 27 April 2010. They concluded that Peach was killed by a police officer, but that the other police officers in the same unit had refused to cooperate with the inquiry by lying to investigators, making it impossible to identify the actual killer.^{[citation needed]}
In the UK, Ian Tomlinson was filmed by an American tourist being hit with a baton and pushed to the floor as he was walking home from work during the 2009 G-20 London summit protests. Tomlinson then collapsed and died. Although he was arrested on suspicion of manslaughter, the officer who allegedly assaulted Tomlinson was released without charge. He was later dismissed for gross misconduct.^[36]
In the UK, in 2005, a young Brazilian man was arrested and shot by Metropolitan Police in Central London. The man, Jean Charles Menezes, died later.^[37]
In Serbia, police brutality occurred in numerous cases during protests against Slobodan Milošević, and has also been recorded at protests against governments since Milošević lost power.^{[citation needed]} The most recent case was recorded in July 2010, when five people, including two girls, were arrested, handcuffed, beaten with clubs, and mistreated for one hour. Security camera recordings of the beating were obtained by the media and public outrage when released.^[38]^[39] Police officials, including Ivica Dačić, the Serbian minister of internal affairs, denied this sequence of events and accused the victims "to have attacked the police officers first". He also publicly stated that "police [aren't] here to beat up citizens", but that it is known "what one is going to get when attacking the police".^[40]
Some recent^[when?] episodes of police brutality in India include the Rajan case, the death of Udayakumar,^[41] and of Sampath.^[42]
Police violence episodes against peaceful demonstrators appeared during the 2011 Spanish protests.^[43]^[44]^[45] Furthermore, on 4 August 2011, Gorka Ramos, a journalist of Lainformacion was beaten by police and arrested while covering 15-M protests near the Interior Ministry in Madrid.^[46]^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50] A freelance photographer, Daniel Nuevo, was beaten by police while covering demonstrations against the Pope's visit in August 2011.^[51]^[52]
In Brazil, incidents of police violence have been very well-reported and Brazil has one of the highest prevalences of police brutality in the world today.
South Africa from apartheid to today has had incidents of police brutality, though police violence is not as prevalent as during the apartheid years.
There have been several instances of police brutality towards protesters in the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests.

Investigation

In England and Wales, an independent organization known as the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) investigates reports of police misconduct. They automatically investigate any deaths caused by or thought to be caused by, police action.

A similar body known as the Police Investigations and Review Commissioner (PIRC) operates in Scotland. In Northern Ireland, the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland has a similar role to that of the IPCC and PIRC.

In Africa, there exist two such bodies: one in South Africa and another one in Kenya known as the Independent Policing Oversight Authority.

In the United States, more police are wearing body cameras after the death of Michael Brown. The US Department of Justice has made a call to action for police departments across the nation to implement body cameras into their departments so further investigation will be possible.^[53]

Measurement

Police brutality is measured based on the accounts of people who have experienced or seen it, as well as the juries who are present for trials involving police brutality cases, as there is no objective method to quantify the use of excessive force for any particular situation.

In addition to this, police brutality may also be filmed by police body cameras, worn by police officers. Whereas body cams could be a tool against police brutality (by prevention, and by increasing accountability). However according to Harlan Yu, executive director from Upturn, for this to occur, it needs to be embedded in a broader change in culture and legal framework. In particular, the public's ability to access the body camera footage can be an issue.^[54]^[55]^[56]

In 1985, only one out of five people thought that police brutality was a serious problem. Police brutality is relative to a situation: it depends on if the suspect is resisting. Out of the people who were surveyed about their account of the police brutality in 2008, only about 12% felt as if they had been resisting.^[57] Although the police force itself cannot be quantified, the opinion of brutality among various races, genders, and ages can. African Americans, women, and younger people are more likely to have negative opinions about the police than Caucasians, men and middle-aged to elderly individuals.^[58]

Independent oversight

Various community groups have criticized police brutality. These groups often stress the need for oversight by independent civilian review boards and other methods of ensuring accountability for police action.

Umbrella organizations and justice committees usually support those affected. Amnesty International is a non-governmental organization focused on human rights with over 3 million members and supporters around the world. The stated objective of the organization is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated".

Tools used by these groups include video recordings, which are sometimes broadcast using websites such as YouTube.^[59]

Civilians have begun independent projects to monitor police activity to try to reduce violence and misconduct. These are often called "Cop Watch" programs.^[60]

References

^ "Understanding Five Different Types of Police Brutality - Rhonda Hill Blog - Criminal Law". criminallaw.com. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
^ Emesowum, Benedict (5 December 2016). "Identifying Cities or Countries at Risk for Police Violence". Journal of African American Studies. 21 (2): 269–281. doi:10.1007/s12111-016-9335-3. ISSN 1559-1646. S2CID 151639366.
^ "More Police Brutality". The Puppet-Show. Vol. 2, no. 27. 9 September 1848. p. 14.
^ "Police Brutality: A Prisoner was shamefully beaten by Officers, he was Kicked and Pounded in a Cell ---Probably Fatally Injured". Chicago Daily Tribune. 12 October 1872.
^ Powers, Mary D. (1995). "Civilian Oversight Is Necessary to Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.). Policing the Police. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 56–60. ISBN 978-1-56510-262-0.
^ Locke, Hubert G. (1966–1967). "Police Brutality and Civilian Review Boards: A Second Look". 44. J. Urb. L.: 625. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "A History of Protest of U.S. Police Brutality". 9 June 2020 – via www.bloomberg.com.
^ "English riots were 'a sort of revenge' against the police". the Guardian. 5 December 2011.
^ "Athens protest against police brutality turns violent". 9 March 2021.
^ www.cato.org https://www.cato.org/blog/police-violence-racist-drug-war. Retrieved 17 May 2022. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Cooper, Hannah LF (2015). "War on Drugs Policing and Police Brutality". Substance Use & Misuse. 50 (8–9): 1188–1194. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007669. ISSN 1082-6084. PMC 4800748. PMID 25775311.
^ Zepcam. "Growing Number of European Police Forces use Bodycam". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
^ "Qualified Immunity". Equal Justice Initiative. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
^ Skolnick, Jerome H.; Fyfe, James D. (1995). "Community-Oriented Policing Would Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.). Policing the Police. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 45–55. ISBN 978-1-56510-262-0.
^ Scrivner, 1994: 3–6
^ ^a ^b ^c Loree, Don (2006). "Corruption in Policing: Causes and Consequences; A Review of the Literature" (PDF). Research and Evaluation Community, Contract and Aboriginal Policing Services Directorate. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Retrieved 1 September 2007.
^ Skolnick, Jerome H. (2002). "Corruption and the Blue Code of Silence". Police Practice and Research. 3 (1): 7. doi:10.1080/15614260290011309. S2CID 144512106.
^ Owens, Katherine M. B.; Jeffrey Pfeifer (2002). "Police Leadership and Ethics: Training and Police Recommendations". The Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services. 1 (2): 7.
^ Stetser, Merle (2001). The Use of Force in Police Control of Violence: Incidents Resulting in Assaults on Officers. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing L.L.C. ISBN 978-1-931202-08-4.
^ Chevigny, P. (2008). "Police Brutality", In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology, 2008.
^ Kevin Mullen (5 April 1996). "The high-speed chase syndrome". SFGate. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ "Mapping Police Violence". Mapping Police Violence. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
^ ^a ^b Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. ^{[verification needed]}
^ ^a ^b "Why do US police keep killing black men?". BBC News. 26 May 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
^ "PsycNET". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
^ Hines, Sandra (21 September 2017). "Detroit Coalition Against Police Brutality". Why Detroit Matters. Policy Press. doi:10.1332/policypress/9781447327868.003.0019. ISBN 9781447327868.
^ Kappeler, Victor (18 February 2014). "Being Arrested can be Hazardous to your Health, Especially if you are a Person of Color".
^ Wertz, Joseph; Azrael, Deborah; Berrigan, John; Barber, Catherine; Nelson, Eliot; Hemenway, David; Salhi, Carmel; Miller, Matthew (1 June 2020). "A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System". Journal of Urban Health. 97 (3): 317–328. doi:10.1007/s11524-020-00430-0. ISSN 1468-2869. PMC 7305287. PMID 32212060.
^ "Our visualizations – Fatal Encounters".
^ "The Counted: People killed by police in the US". The Guardian.
^ "2020 Police Violence Report". policeviolencereport.org. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
^ "Mapping Police Violence". Mapping Police Violence. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
^ Rafaqat, Cheema (July 2016). "Black and Blue Bloods: Protecting Police Officer Families from Domestic Violence". Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law.
^ Lott, John R. (29 August 2018). "Concealed Carry Permit Holders Across the United States: 2018". SSRN 3233904.
^ "Amnesty International Report 2007". Amnesty International. 2007. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
^ Walker, Peter (17 September 2012). "Ian Tomlinson case: PC Simon Harwood sacked for gross misconduct". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
^ "Dispatch Online - Your premier Eastern Cape news site". Archived from the original on 9 January 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
^ "Policija brutalno tukla i devojke". B92.net. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
^ "Blic Online – Policija nas tukla bez razloga". Blic Online. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
^ "Dačić: Policija nije tu da bije". B92.net. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
^ "Police question forensic experts". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 4 October 2005. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012.
^ "Sampath case: 4 police officers to turn approvers". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011.
^ Spanish police clash with protesters over clean-up – The Guardian
^ Los Mossos d'Esquadra desalojan a palos la Plaza de Catalunya – Público (in Spanish)
^ Indignats – Desallotjament de la Plaça Catalunya on YouTube
^ Spanish riot police clash in Madrid with anti-austerity protesters – The Guardian
^ Los periodistas, detenidos y golpeados al cubrir las manifestaciones del 15-M – El Mundo (in Spanish)
^ Doce policías para detener a un periodista – Público (in Spanish)
^ Gorka Ramos: "Me tiraron al suelo, me patearon y luego me detuvieron" Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Lainformación (in Spanish)
^ La policía detiene al periodista Gorka Ramos – El País (in Spanish)
^ Spanish police officer slaps girl during Pope protests – The Telegraph
^ La policía golpea a un fotógrafo y a una joven – Público (in Spanish)
^ "Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department". 2015.
^ "Body Cameras Haven't Stopped Police Brutality. Here's Why". Wired – via www.wired.com.
^ Lee, Andrew (13 October 2020). "Why Police Body Cameras Haven't Stopped Police Brutality". Progressive.org.
^ Poor, William (31 August 2020). "Police body cameras don't tell the whole story. This experiment shows it". The Verge.
^ Bureau of Justice Statistics. "Use of Force". Bureau of Justice Statistics. Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
^ Jefferis, Eric; Butcher, Fredrick; Hanley, Dena (2012). "Measuring perceptions of police use of force". Police Practice and Research. 13 (6): 81–96.
^ Veiga, Alex (11 November 2006). "YouTube.com prompts police beating probe". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 30 November 2006. Retrieved 12 November 2006.
^ Krupanski, Marc (7 March 2012). "Policing the Police: Civilian Video Monitoring of Police Activity". The Global Journal. Retrieved 13 March 2012.

External links

Library resources about
Police brutality

[1] "Understanding Five Different Types of Police Brutality - Rhonda Hill Blog - Criminal Law". criminallaw.com. Retrieved 1 May 2022.

[2] Emesowum, Benedict (5 December 2016). "Identifying Cities or Countries at Risk for Police Violence". Journal of African American Studies. 21 (2): 269–281. doi:10.1007/s12111-016-9335-3. ISSN 1559-1646. S2CID 151639366.

[3] "More Police Brutality". The Puppet-Show. Vol. 2, no. 27. 9 September 1848. p. 14.

[4] "Police Brutality: A Prisoner was shamefully beaten by Officers, he was Kicked and Pounded in a Cell ---Probably Fatally Injured". Chicago Daily Tribune. 12 October 1872.

[5] Powers, Mary D. (1995). "Civilian Oversight Is Necessary to Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.). Policing the Police. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 56–60. ISBN 978-1-56510-262-0.

[6] Locke, Hubert G. (1966–1967). "Police Brutality and Civilian Review Boards: A Second Look". 44. J. Urb. L.: 625. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[7] "A History of Protest of U.S. Police Brutality". 9 June 2020 – via www.bloomberg.com.

[8] "English riots were 'a sort of revenge' against the police". the Guardian. 5 December 2011.

[9] "Athens protest against police brutality turns violent". 9 March 2021.

[10] www.cato.org https://www.cato.org/blog/police-violence-racist-drug-war. Retrieved 17 May 2022. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

[11] Cooper, Hannah LF (2015). "War on Drugs Policing and Police Brutality". Substance Use & Misuse. 50 (8–9): 1188–1194. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007669. ISSN 1082-6084. PMC 4800748. PMID 25775311.

[12] Zepcam. "Growing Number of European Police Forces use Bodycam". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 19 May 2022.

[13] "Qualified Immunity". Equal Justice Initiative. Retrieved 19 May 2022.

[14] Skolnick, Jerome H.; Fyfe, James D. (1995). "Community-Oriented Policing Would Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.). Policing the Police. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 45–55. ISBN 978-1-56510-262-0.

[15] Scrivner, 1994: 3–6

[RCMP_Review-16] Loree, Don (2006). "Corruption in Policing: Causes and Consequences; A Review of the Literature" (PDF). Research and Evaluation Community, Contract and Aboriginal Policing Services Directorate. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Retrieved 1 September 2007.

[17] Skolnick, Jerome H. (2002). "Corruption and the Blue Code of Silence". Police Practice and Research. 3 (1): 7. doi:10.1080/15614260290011309. S2CID 144512106.

[18] Owens, Katherine M. B.; Jeffrey Pfeifer (2002). "Police Leadership and Ethics: Training and Police Recommendations". The Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services. 1 (2): 7.

[19] Stetser, Merle (2001). The Use of Force in Police Control of Violence: Incidents Resulting in Assaults on Officers. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing L.L.C. ISBN 978-1-931202-08-4.

[20] Chevigny, P. (2008). "Police Brutality", In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology, 2008.

[21] Kevin Mullen (5 April 1996). "The high-speed chase syndrome". SFGate. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[:20-22] "Mapping Police Violence". Mapping Police Violence. Retrieved 22 September 2021.

[ReferenceD-23] Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. ^{[verification needed]}

[BBC_News-24] "Why do US police keep killing black men?". BBC News. 26 May 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2018.

[25] "PsycNET". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 5 July 2019.

[26] Hines, Sandra (21 September 2017). "Detroit Coalition Against Police Brutality". Why Detroit Matters. Policy Press. doi:10.1332/policypress/9781447327868.003.0019. ISBN 9781447327868.

[27] Kappeler, Victor (18 February 2014). "Being Arrested can be Hazardous to your Health, Especially if you are a Person of Color".

[28] Wertz, Joseph; Azrael, Deborah; Berrigan, John; Barber, Catherine; Nelson, Eliot; Hemenway, David; Salhi, Carmel; Miller, Matthew (1 June 2020). "A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System". Journal of Urban Health. 97 (3): 317–328. doi:10.1007/s11524-020-00430-0. ISSN 1468-2869. PMC 7305287. PMID 32212060.

[29] "Our visualizations – Fatal Encounters".

[30] "The Counted: People killed by police in the US". The Guardian.

[31] "2020 Police Violence Report". policeviolencereport.org. Retrieved 3 October 2021.

[32] "Mapping Police Violence". Mapping Police Violence. Retrieved 18 June 2020.

[33] Rafaqat, Cheema (July 2016). "Black and Blue Bloods: Protecting Police Officer Families from Domestic Violence". Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law.

[34] Lott, John R. (29 August 2018). "Concealed Carry Permit Holders Across the United States: 2018". SSRN 3233904.

[Amnesty_2007-35] "Amnesty International Report 2007". Amnesty International. 2007. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2007.

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v t e Discrimination
Forms	Institutional Structural Statistical Taste-based
Attributes	Age Caste Class Dialect Disability Genetic Hair texture Height Language Looks Mental disorder Race / Ethnicity Skin color Scientific racism Rank Sex Sexual orientation Species Size Viewpoint
Social	Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-drug addicts Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Antisemitism Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Cronyism Elitism Ephebiphobia Social determinants of health Social determinants of health in poverty Social determinants of mental health Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism HIV/AIDS stigma Homophobia Leprosy stigma Lesbophobia Discrimination against men Misandry Misogyny Nepotism Pedophobia Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Reverse Sectarianism Supremacism White Transphobia Non-binary Transmisogyny Trans men Vegaphobia Xenophobia
Religious	Ahmadiyya Atheism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Catholicism Christianity post–Cold War era Falun Gong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Jehovah's Witnesses Judaism Persecution LDS or Mormon Neopaganism Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Protestantism Rastafari Shi'ism Sufism Zoroastrianism
Ethnic/National	Afghan African Albanian American Arab Armenian Asian France South Africa United States Assyrian Azerbaijani Black people African Americans China South Africa Bengali British Bulgarian Catalan Chechen Chinese Croat Filipino Fulani Finnish French German Georgian Greek Haitian Hazara Hispanic Hungarian Igbo Indian Indigenous people Australia Canada United States Iranian Irish Israeli Italian Japanese Jewish Korean Kurdish Lithuanian Malay Māori Mexican Middle Eastern Mongolian Nigerian Pakistani Palestinians Pashtun Polish Quebec Romani Romanian Serb Slavic Somali Tatar Thai Turkish Ukrainian Uyghur Venezuelan Vietnamese
Manifestations	Anti-LGBT rhetoric Blood libel Bullying Cancel culture Capital punishment for homosexuality Compulsory sterilization Corrective rape Counter-jihad Cultural genocide Defamation Democide Disability hate crime Dog whistle Economic Education Employment Eliminationism Enemy of the people Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnocide Forced conversion Freak show Gay bashing Gendercide Genital modification and mutilation Genocide examples Glass ceiling Hate crime LGBT Hate group Hate speech Homeless dumping Housing Indian rolling Intersectionality Lavender scare LGBT grooming conspiracy theory List of people killed for being transgender Lynching Mortgage Murder music Native American mascots Braves Blackhawks Chiefs Occupational segregation Persecution Pogrom Political repression Purge Racialization Religious persecution Religious terrorism Religious violence Religious war Scapegoating Segregation academy Sexual harassment Sex-selective abortion Slut-shaming Trans bashing Victimisation Violence against women White flight White genocide conspiracy theory Wife selling Witch-hunt
Discriminatory policies	Age of candidacy Blood purity Blood quantum Crime of apartheid Disabilities Catholic Jewish Gender pay gap Gender roles Gerontocracy Gerrymandering Ghetto benches Internment Jewish quota Law for Protection of the Nation MSM blood donation restrictions Nonpersons Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota) One-drop rule Racial quota Racial segregation Jim Crow laws Nuremberg Laws Racial steering Redlining Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) Segregation age racial religious sexual Social exclusion Sodomy law State atheism State religion Ugly law Voter suppression
Countermeasures	Affirmative action Anti-discrimination law Anti-racism Constitutional colorblindness Cultural assimilation Cultural pluralism Diversity training Empowerment Fat acceptance movement Feminism Fighting Discrimination Hate speech laws by country Human rights Intersex human rights LGBT rights Masculism Multiculturalism Nonviolence Racial integration Reappropriation Self-determination Social integration Toleration
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