List of genocides

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This list of genocides includes estimates of all deaths which were directly or indirectly caused by genocides that are recognised in significant scholarship as genocides. It excludes mass killings which have not been explicitly defined as genocidal, but called mass murder, crimes against humanity, politicide, classicide, or war crimes, such as the Thirty Years' War (4.5 to 8 million deaths), Japanese war crimes (30 million deaths), the Red Terror (50,000 to 200,000 deaths), the Atrocities in the Congo Free State (1.5 to 13 million deaths), the Great Purge (0.7 to 1.2 million deaths), the Great Leap Forward and the famine which followed it (15 to 55 million deaths).[1] A broader list of genocides, ethnic cleansing and related mass persecution is available. Genocides in history includes cases where there is less consensus among scholars as to whether they constituted genocide.

Definition

Main article: Genocide definitions

Scholarship varies on the definition of genocide employed when analysing whether events are genocidal in nature. The United Nations Genocide Convention, not always employed, defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group".[2]

List of genocides

The term genocide is contentious and as a result its definition varies. This list only considers acts which are recognised in significant scholarship as genocides.

List of genocides in reverse chronological order
Event Location Period Estimated killings
From To Lowest Highest
Description Proportion of group killed
Rohingya genocide Rakhine State, Myanmar 2016 Present 9,000–13,700[3] 43,000[4]
The Rohingya genocide is a series of ongoing persecutions and killings of the Muslim Rohingya people by the military of Myanmar. The genocide has consisted of two phases to date: the first was a military crackdown that occurred from October 2016 to January 2017, and the second has been occurring since August 2017.[5] The crisis forced over a million Rohingya to flee to other countries. Most fled to Bangladesh, resulting in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp,[6] while others escaped to India, Thailand, Malaysia, and other parts of South and Southeast Asia, where they continue to face persecution. Before the 2015 refugee crisis, the Rohingya population in Myanmar was around 1.0 to 1.3 million. Since 2015, over 900,000 Rohingya refugees have fled to southeastern Bangladesh alone, and more to other surrounding countries. More than 100,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar are confined in camps for internally displaced persons.
Iraqi Turkmen genocide Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq 2014 2017 3,500 8,400
The Iraqi Turkmen genocide refers to a series of killings, rapes, executions, expulsions, and sexual slavery of Iraqi Turkmen by the Islamic State.[7] It began when ISIS captured Iraqi Turkmen land in 2014 and it continued until ISIS lost all of their land in Iraq.
Yazidi genocide Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq and Syria 2014 2017 2,100[8] 5,000[9]
The Yazidi genocide was perpetrated by the Islamic State throughout Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2017.[10][11][12] It was characterized by massacres, genocidal rape, and forced conversions to Islam. Over a period of three years, Islamic State militants trafficked thousands of Yazidi women and girls and killed thousands of Yazidi men.[13] By 2015, upwards of 71% of the global Yazidi population was displaced by the genocide, with most Yazidi refugees having fled to Iraq's Kurdistan Region and Syria's Rojava.[14][15]
Darfur genocide Darfur, Sudan 2003 Present 98,000[16] 500,000[17]
The Darfur genocide is the systematic killing of ethnic Darfuri people which has occurred during the war in Darfur and the ongoing war in Sudan in Darfur.[18] The genocide, which is being carried out against the Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups, has led the International Criminal Court to indict several people for crimes against humanity, rape, forced transfer and torture. An estimated 200,000 people were killed between 2003 and 2005.[19]
Effacer le tableau North Kivu, DR Congo 2002 2003 60,000[20][21] 70,000[20]
Effacer le tableau ("erasing the board") was the operational name given to the systematic extermination of the Bambuti pygmies by rebel forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The primary objective of Effacer le tableau was the territorial conquest of the North Kivu province of the DRC and ethnic cleansing of Pygmies from the Congo's eastern region.[21][22] 40% of the Eastern Congo's Pygmy population killed[N 1]
Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War Kivu, Zaire 1996 1997 200,000[23] 233,000[23]
During the First Congo War, Rwandan, Congolese, and Burundian Hutu men, women, and children in villages and refugee camps were hunted down and became victims of mass killings in eastern Zaire (now named the Democratic Republic of the Congo).[24]
Rwandan genocide Rwanda 1994 491,000[25] 800,000[26]
The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, occurred between 7 April and 19 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War.[27] During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa, were killed by armed Hutu militias. Although the Constitution of Rwanda states that more than 1 million people perished in the genocide, the actual number of fatalities is unclear, and some estimates suggest that the real number killed was likely lower.[28][29][30] The most widely accepted scholarly estimates are around 500,000 to 800,000 Tutsi deaths.[31] 60–70% of Tutsis in Rwanda killed[25]
7% of Rwanda's total population killed[25]
Bosnian genocide Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992 1995 31,107[32] 62,013[32]
The Bosnian genocide comprised localised massacres, including those in Srebrenica[33] and Žepa, committed by Bosnian Serb forces in 1995, as well as the scattered ethnic cleansing campaign throughout areas controlled by the Army of Republika Srpska[34] during the 1992–1995 Bosnian War.[35] More than 3% of the Bosniak population of Bosnia and Herzegovina died during the Bosnian War.[36]
Isaaq genocide Somaliland, Somalia 1987 1989 50,000[37][38] 200,000[39]
The Genocide of Isaaqs was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of Isaaq civilians between 1988 and 1991 by the Somali Democratic Republic under the dictatorship of Siad Barre.[40] This included the leveling and complete destruction of the second- and third-largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa (90 percent destroyed)[41] and Burao (70 percent destroyed) respectively,[42] and had caused 400,000[43][44] Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee their land and cross the border to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees,[45] with another 400,000 being internally displaced.[46]
Anfal campaign Kurdistan Region, Iraq 1986 1989 50,000[47] 182,000[48]
The Anfal campaign was a counterinsurgency operation which was carried out by Ba'athist Iraq from February to September 1988 during the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict at the end of the Iran–Iraq War. The campaign targeted rural Kurds[49] because its purpose was to eliminate Kurdish rebel groups and Arabize strategic parts of the Kirkuk Governorate.[50] The Iraqis committed atrocities on the local Kurdish population, mostly civilians.[51]
Gukurahundi Matabeleland, Zimbabwe 1983 1987 8,000[52] 300,000[53]
The Gukurahundi was the systematic massacre of the Ndebele people by Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF party.[54] The Gukurahundi was initiated because the ZAPU party, the main Zimbabwean opposition party, found the majority of its support among the Ndebele people, leading Mugabe to conclude that they must be exterminated in order to eliminate support for the ZAPU.[55] The Gukurahundi began in 1983, and continued until the signing of the 1987 Unity Accords, during which time about 20,000 Ndebele were killed and sent to re-education camps.
Sabra and Shatila massacre Beirut, Lebanon 1982 460[56] 3,500[57]
The Sabra and Shatila massacre was the 16–18 September 1982 killings of civilians—mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shias—in the city of Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War. It was perpetrated by the Lebanese Forces, one of the main Christian militias in Lebanon, and supported by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) that had surrounded Beirut's Sabra neighbourhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp.[58][59][60][61]
Cambodian genocide Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) 1975 1979 1,386,734[62][63] 3,000,000[64][65]
The Cambodian genocide was the systematic persecution and killing of Cambodian citizens by the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot.[66] The Khmer Rouge emptied the cities and forced Cambodians to relocate to labor camps in the countryside, where mass executions, forced labor, physical abuse, malnutrition, and disease were rampant.[67][68] Up to 20,000 mass graves, the infamous Killing Fields, were uncovered, where at least 1,386,734 murdered victims found their final resting place.[69] 15–33% of total population of Cambodia killed,[67][70] including 99% of Cambodian Viets, 50% of Cambodian Chinese and Cham, 40% of Cambodian Lao and Thai, 25% of Urban Khmer, 16% of Rural Khmer
East Timor genocide East Timor, Indonesia 1974 1999 85,320[71] 196,720[72]
The East Timor genocide refers to the "pacification campaigns" of state terrorism which were waged by the Indonesian New Order government during the Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor. 13% to 44% of East Timor's total population killed
(See death toll of East Timor genocide)
Genocide of Acholi and Lango people Uganda 1972 1978 100,000[73] 300,000[73]
After Idi Amin overthrow the regime of Milton Obote in 1971, he declared the Acholi and Lango tribes enemies, as Obote was a Lango and he saw the fact that they dominated the army as a threat.[73]
In January 1972, Amin issued an order to the Ugandan army ordering that they assemble and kill all Acholi or Lango soldiers, and then commanded that all Acholi and Lango be rounded up and confined within army barracks, where they were either slaughtered by the soldiers or killed when the Ugandan air force bombed the barracks.[73]
Ikiza Burundi 1972 80,000[74][75] 300,000[76]
The Ikiza was a series of mass killings which were committed in Burundi in 1972 by the Tutsi-dominated army and government, primarily against educated and elite Hutus who lived in the country. As much as 10% to 15% of the Hutu population of Burundi killed[76]
Bangladesh genocide East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) 1971 300,000[77] 3,000,000[78][79]
The Bangladesh genocide was the ethnic cleansing of Bengalis, especially Bengali Hindus, residing in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during the Bangladesh Liberation War, perpetrated by the Pakistan Armed Forces and the Razakars.[80] It began as Operation Searchlight was launched by West Pakistan (now Pakistan) to militarily subdue the Bengali population of East Pakistan; the Bengalis comprised the demographic majority and had been calling for independence. Seeking to curtail the Bengali self-determination movement, Pakistani president Yahya Khan approved a large-scale military deployment, and in the nine-month-long conflict that ensued, Pakistani soldiers and local militias killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 Bengalis and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bengali women in a systematic campaign of mass murder and genocidal sexual violence.[81] 2%[citation needed] to 4% of the population of East Pakistan[82]
Zanzibar genocide Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania) 1964 13,000[83] 20,000+[84]
In January 1964 during and following the Zanzibar Revolution, Arab residents of Zanzibar were targeted for violence by the island’s majority Black African population.[85] Arabs were mass murdered, raped, tortured and deported from the island by Black African militiamen under the Afro-Shirazi Party and Umma Party. The exact death toll is unknown, although scholarly sources estimate the number of Arabs killed to be between 13,000 and more than 20,000.[83][84] 25% or more of the Arab population (50,000 people) of Zanzibar was killed by the end of 1964.[83]
Guatemalan genocide Guatemala 1962 1996 166,000[86] 166,000[87]
The Guatemalan genocide was the massacre of Maya civilians during the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–1996) by successive US-backed Guatemalan military governments.[88] Massacres, forced disappearances, torture and summary executions of guerrillas and especially civilians at the hands of security forces had been widespread since 1965, and was a longstanding policy of the military regime, which US officials were aware of.[89][90] 40% of the Maya population (24,000 people) of Guatemala's Ixil and Rabinal regions were killed[citation needed]
Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush Soviet Union 1944 1948 100,000[91] 400,000[92]
The deportation of the Chechens and Ingush, or Ardakhar Genocide, was the Soviet forced transfer of the whole of the Vainakh (Chechen and Ingush) populations of the North Caucasus to Central Asia on 23 February 1944, during World War II. The expulsion was ordered by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria after approval by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, as a part of a Soviet forced settlement program and population transfer that affected several million members of ethnic minorities in the Soviet Union between the 1930s and the 1950s. 23.5% to almost 50% of total Chechen population killed[93]

[94][page needed][95][96][97]

Deportation of the Crimean Tatars Crimea, Soviet Union 1944 34,000[98] 195,471[99]
The deportation of the Crimean Tatars was the ethnic cleansing and the cultural genocide of at least 191,044 Crimean Tatars which was carried out by the Soviet authorities from 18 to 20 May 1944, supervised by Lavrentiy Beria, and ordered by the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Within those three days, the NKVD used cattle trains to deport the Crimean Tatars, mostly women, children, and the elderly, even Communist Party members and Red Army members, to the Uzbek SSR, several thousand kilometres away. The deportation and following exile reduced the Crimean Tatar population by between 18%[98] and 46%.[100][N 2]
The Holocaust Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe 1941 1945 5,100,000[102][103] 7,000,000[104][105]
The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population. The murders were carried out primarily through mass shootings and poison gas in extermination camps. Separate Nazi persecutions killed a similar or larger number of non-Jewish civilians and POWs; the term Holocaust is sometimes used to refer to the persecution of these other groups. Around 2/3 of the Jewish population of Europe.[106][107]
German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs[108] (part of the Generalplan Ost) German-occupied Europe 1941 1945 3,300,000[109] 3,500,000[110]
During World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This policy, which amounted to deliberately starving and working to death Soviet POWs, was grounded in Nazi racial theory, which depicted Slavs as sub-humans (Untermenschen).[111][112]
The Holocaust in Croatia Independent State of Croatia
(now Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina) 		1941 1945 248,000[113][114][115][N 3] 548,000[113][115][114][N 3]
The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia involved the genocide of Jews, Serbs and Romani within the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a fascist puppet state that existed during World War II, led by the Ustaše regime, which ruled an occupied area of Yugoslavia. The Ustaše were the only quisling forces in Yugoslavia who operated their own extermination camps for the purpose of murdering Jews and members of other ethnic groups. 77% of Jews in the Independent State of Croatia
Genocide of Bosniaks and Croats by the Chetniks Yugoslavia 1941 1945 50,000[116] 68,000[116]
The Chetniks, a Yugoslav royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force, committed numerous war crimes during the Second World War, primarily directed against the non-Serb population of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, mainly Muslims and Croats, and against Communist-led Yugoslav Partisans and their supporters.
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation[117][118] (part of the Generalplan Ost) German-occupied Europe 1939 1945 1,800,000[119] 3,000,000[120][121]
Crimes against the Polish nation committed by Nazi Germany and Axis collaborationist forces during the invasion of Poland,[122] along with auxiliary battalions during the subsequent occupation of Poland in World War II,[123] included the genocide of millions of Polish people, especially the systematic extermination of Jewish Poles.[a] These mass killings were enacted by the Nazis with further plans that were justified by their racial theories, which regarded Poles and other Slavs, and especially Jews, as racially inferior Untermenschen. From 6% to 10% (1.8 to 3 million) of the total Polish gentile population.[121] In addition, 3 million Polish Jews were killed during the Holocaust in Poland (90% of Polish Jews).[119]
Polish Operation of the NKVD Soviet Union 1937 1938 111,091[125] 250,000[126]
The Polish Operation of the NKVD in 1937–1938 was an anti-Polish mass-ethnic cleansing operation of the NKVD carried out in the Soviet Union against Poles (labeled by the Soviets as "agents") during the period of the Great Purge. It was ordered by the Politburo of the Communist Party against so-called "Polish spies" and customarily interpreted by NKVD officials as relating to all Poles. It resulted in the sentencing of 139,835 people, and summary executions of 111,091 Poles living in or near the Soviet Union.[127] 22% of the Polish population of the USSR was "sentenced" by the operation (140,000 people)[128]
Parsley massacre Dominican Republic 1937 12,000 40,000[129]
The Parsley massacre was a mass killing of Haitians living in the Dominican Republic's northwestern frontier and in certain parts of the contiguous Cibao region in October 1937. Dominican Army troops from different areas of the country[130]: 161  carried out the massacre on the orders of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo.[131] Many died while trying to flee to Haiti across the Dajabón River that divides the two countries on the island;[132] the troops followed them into the river to cut them down, causing the river to run with blood and corpses for several days. The massacre claimed the lives of an estimated 14,000 to 40,000 Haitian men, women, and children.[133] Dominican troops interrogated thousands of civilians demanding that each victim say the word "parsley" (perejil). If the accused could not pronounce the word to the interrogators' satisfaction, they were deemed to be Haitians and killed. As a result of the massacre, virtually the entire Haitian population in the Dominican frontier was either killed or forced to flee across the border.[134]
Romani Holocaust German-occupied Europe 1939[135] 1945 130,000[136] 1,500,000[137][138]
The Romani Holocaust was the planned effort by Nazi Germany and its World War II allies and collaborators to commit ethnic cleansing and eventually genocide against European Roma and Sinti peoples during the Holocaust era.[139] A supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws issued on 26 November 1935 classified the Romani people as "enemies of the race-based state", thereby placing them in the same category as the Jews. Thus, the fate of the Roma in Europe paralleled that of the Jews in the Holocaust.[140] 25% to 80% of Romani people in Europe killed
Holodomor Ukraine and the northern Kuban,[141] Soviet Union 1932 1933 3,000,000[142] 5,000,000[142]
The Holodomor also known as the Ukrainian Famine was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933 that killed millions of Ukrainians. The Holodomor was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1930–1933 which affected the major grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union.
While scholars are in consensus that the cause of the famine was man-made,[143] whether or not the Holodomor was intentional and therefore constitutes a genocide under the Genocide Convention is debated by scholars.[144][145] 		10% of Ukraine's population[146]
Over 35% of Ukrainians in Kazakhstan[147]
Libyan genocide Italian Libya 1929 1932 83,000[148] 125,000+[149]
The Libyan genocide was the genocide of Libyan Arabs and the systematic destruction of Libyan culture, particularly during and after the Second Italo-Senussi War between 1929 and 1934.[150] During this period, between 83,000 and 125,000 Libyans were killed by Italian colonial authorities under Benito Mussolini. 25% of Cyrenaican population[151]
Half of the nomadic Bedouin population[152]
Osage Indian murders Oklahoma, United States 1918 1931 60[153] 200+[154]
The Osage Indian murders was a plot by William King Hale and others to kill full-blood Osage to gain the mineral rights for their reservation. The events have been characterized as a genocide due to the intentions of its perpetrators to destroy the Osage nation.[155][156][157][158][159] Estimates vary widely, with 10% of 591 full-blood Osage being killed with the lowest estimate.[160]
Armenian genocide Ottoman Empire (now Turkey, Syria, and Iraq) 1915 1917 600,000[161] 1,500,000[162]
Approximately 90% of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were killed or expelled.[163] The share of Christians in area within Turkey's current borders declined from 20-22% in 1914, or about 3.3.–3.6 million people, to around 3% in 1927.[164]
Sayfo Ottoman Empire (now Turkey, Syria and Iraq) 1915 1919 200,000[165] 750,000[166]
The Armenian genocide,[167][168] carried out by the Young Turks, included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, and mass starvation. It occurred concurrently with the Assyrian and Greek genocides; some scholars consider these to form a broader genocide targeting all of the Christians in Anatolia.[169][170] Overall, about 2 million Christians were killed in Anatolia between 1894 and 1924, 40 percent of the original population.[171]
Greek genocide and Pontic genocide Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) 1914 1922 300,000[172] 900,000[173]
For the Greek genocide other sources give 500,000–1,200,000 casualties between Pontic, Cappadocian and Ionians Greeks. The genocide, instigated by the Ottoman government, included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, summary expulsions, arbitrary executions, and destruction of Greek Orthodox cultural, historical and religious monuments. At least 25% of Greeks in Anatolia (Turkey) killed [citation needed]
Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars Scutari, Kosovo, and Manastir vilayets, Ottoman Empire 1912 1913 120,000[174][175] 270,000[176]
Herero and Nama genocide German South West Africa (now Namibia) 1904 1908 34,000[177] 110,000[178][179]
The Genocide in German South West Africa was the campaign to exterminate the Herero and Nama people that the German Empire undertook in German South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia). It is considered one of the first genocides of the 20th century. 60% (24,000 out of 40,000[177]) to 81.25% (65,000[180][181] out of 80,000[182]) of total Herero and 50%[177] of Nama population killed.
Armenian massacres of 1894–1896 Six Vilayets, Ottoman Empire 1894 1896 200,000[183] 300,000[183]
The Hamidian massacres (Armenian: Համիդյան ջարդեր, Turkish: Hamidiye Katliamı, French: Massacres hamidiens), also referred to as the Armenian Massacres of 1894–1896[184] and Armenian genocide,[184] were massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire that took place in the mid-1890s. It was estimated casualties ranged from 80,000 to 300,000,[185] resulting in 50,000 orphaned children.[186] The massacres are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who, in his efforts to maintain the imperial domain of the collapsing Ottoman Empire, reasserted Pan-Islamism as a state ideology.[183] Although the massacres were aimed mainly at the Armenians, they turned into indiscriminate anti-Christian pogroms in some cases, such as the Diyarbekir massacre, where, at least according to one contemporary source, up to 25,000 Assyrians were also killed.[187]
The massacres began in the Ottoman interior in 1894, before becoming more widespread in the following years. Between 1894 and 1896 was when the majority of the murders took place. The massacres began tapering off in 1897, following international condemnation of Abdul Hamid. The harshest measures were directed against the long persecuted Armenian community as calls for civil reform and better treatment from the government went ignored. The Ottomans made no allowances for the victims' age or gender, and massacred all with brutal force.[188] This occurred at a time when the telegraph could spread news around the world, and the massacres received extensive coverage in the media of Western Europe and North America.
Selk'nam genocide Tierra del Fuego, Chile, Argentina 1880 1910 2,500[189] 4,000[190]
The Selk'nam Genocide was the genocide of the Selk'nam people, indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego in South America, from the second half of the 19th to the early 20th century. Spanning a period of between ten and fifteen years the Selk'nam, which had an estimated population of between three and four thousand, saw their numbers reduced to 500.[189] 84%
The genocide reduced their numbers from around 3,000 to about 500 people.[191][192]
Putumayo genocide Present-day Putumayo Department, Colombia 1879 1913 32,000[193] 40,000+[194][195]
Members of the Huitoto, Andoques, Yaguas, Ocaina and Boras groups were hunted and enslaved so they could be used to extract latex.[196] During this time period, several tribes became extinct.[197] 80–86% of the total population in the Putumayo region perished during the Amazon rubber boom.[198][N 4]
Circassian genocide Circassia, Russian Empire 1864[N 5] 1867 1,000,000[200] 2,000,000[201][202]
The Circassian genocide refers to the ethnic cleansing, massive annihilation, displacement,[203] destruction and expulsion of the majority of the indigenous Circassians from historical Circassia, which roughly encompassed the major part of the North Caucasus and the northeast shore of the Black Sea. This occurred in the aftermath of the Caucasian War in the last quarter of the 19th century.[204] The displaced people moved primarily to the Ottoman Empire.
Former Russian President Boris Yeltsin's May 1994 statement admitted that resistance to the tsarist forces was legitimate, but he did not recognise "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide."[205] In 1997 and 1998, the leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria and of Adygea sent appeals to the Duma to reconsider the situation and to issue the needed apology; to date, there has been no response from Moscow. In October 2006, the Adygeyan public organizations of Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, the United States, Belgium, Canada and Germany have sent the president of the European Parliament a letter with the request to recognise the genocide against Adygean (Circassian) people.[206]
Following a consultation with academics, human rights activists and Circassian diaspora groups and parliamentary discussions in Tbilisi in 2010 and 2011, Georgia became the first country to use the word "genocide" to refer to the events.[207][208][209] On 20 May 2011 the parliament of the Republic of Georgia declared in its resolution[210] that the mass annihilation of the Cherkess (Adyghe) people during the Russian-Caucasian war and thereafter constituted genocide as defined in the Hague Convention of 1907 and the UN Convention of 1948. 		95%–97% of total Circassian population killed or deported by the forces of Tsarist Russia.[211][212] Only a small percentage who accepted to convert to Christianity, Russify and resettle within the Russian Empire were spared. The remaining Circassian populations who refused were thus forcefully dispersed, deported or killed. Today, most Circassians live in exile.[213]
California genocide California, United States 1846 1873 9,492–16,094[214][215][N 6] 120,000[215][N 7]
The California genocide[214][215] refers to the destruction of individual tribes like the Yuki people during the Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856–1859,[216] general massacres perpetrated by settlers chasing the gold rush against Indians like the Bloodsland massacre, or Klamath River "War of Extermination"[217] along with the overall decline of the Indian population of California due to disease and starvation exacerbated by the massacres. Amerindian population in California declined by 80% during the period
Queensland Aboriginal genocide Queensland 1840 1897 10,000[218] 65,180[219]
Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.[220] Thus some sources have characterized these events as a Queensland Aboriginal genocide.[221][222][223][218] 3.3% to over 50% of the aboriginal population was killed
(10,000[218] to 65,180[219] killed out of 125,600)[clarification needed]
Moriori genocide Chatham Islands, New Zealand 1835 1863 1,900[224][225] 1,900
The genocide of the Moriori began in the fall of 1835. The invasions of the Chatham Islands by Maori from New Zealand left the Moriori people and their culture to die off. Those who survived were either kept as slaves or eaten and Moriori were not sanctioned to marry other Moriori or have children within their race. This caused their people and their language to be endangered. There were only 101 Moriori people left out of 2000 who had survived in 1863.[226] 95% of the Moriori population was eradicated by the invasion from Taranaki, a group of people from the Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama iwi.[227][228] All were enslaved and many were cannibalised.[229] The Moriori language is now extinct.[226][230]
Massacre of Salsipuedes Uruguay 1831 40[231] 40
[232][233]
Trail of Tears Southeastern United States 1830 1850 12,000[234] 16,000[234]
The Trail of Tears was the forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of Native Americans within that were ethnically cleansed by the United States government.[235] A variety of scholars have classified the Trail of Tears as either a genocide in and of itself,[N 8] or as a genocidal act within the broader genocide of Native Americans.[242][N 9] Figures for the number of deaths per Native American group that was forcibly relocated can be found at Trail of Tears § Statistics.
Black War (Genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians) Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) 1825 1832 400 [257] 1,000 [257]
The extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians was called an archetypal case of genocide by Rafael Lemkin[258] (coiner of the word genocide) among other historians, a view supported by more recent genocide scholars like Ben Kiernan who covered it in his book Blood and Soil: A History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. This extinction also includes the Black War, which would make the war an act of genocide.[259] Historians like Keith Windschuttle among other historians disagree with this interpretation in discourse known as the History wars. ~100%[259]
1804 Haiti massacre Haiti 1804 3,000[260] 5,000[260]
The 1804 Haiti massacre is considered to be a genocide by many scholars,[261][262] as it was intended to destroy the Franco-Haitian population following the Haitian Revolution. The massacre was ordered by King Jean-Jacques Dessalines to remove the remainder of the white population from Haiti, and lasted from January to 22 April 1804. During the massacre, entire families were tortured and killed, and by the end of it, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent.[263][264]
Dzungar genocide Dzungaria, Qing dynasty China 1755 1758 480,000[265] 600,000[265]
The Manchu Qianlong Emperor of Qing China issued his orders for his Manchu Bannermen to carry out the genocide and eradication of the Dzungar nation, ordering the massacre of all the Dzungar men and enslaving Dzungar women and children.[266] The Qianlong Emperor moved the remaining Zunghar people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers.[267][268] The Qing soldiers who massacred the Dzungars were Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols. In an account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or the Kazakh Khanate, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands of Chinese miles except those of the surrendered.[265][269][270] Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 600,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people."[265][271] Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the extermination of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor.[265] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[265] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[272] 80% of 600,000 Zungharian Oirats killed
Taíno genocide Hispaniola 1492 1514 68,000[273] 968,000[273]
The Taíno genocide refers to the extermination of the indigenous population of Hispaniola due to forced labor and exploitation by the Spanish. Raphael Lemkin (coiner of the term genocide) considers Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide including the abuses of the Encomienda system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings." He considers colonist guilty due to failing to halt the abuses of the system despite royal orders. He also notes the sexual abuse of Spanish colonizers of Native women as acts of "biological genocide."[274] University of Hawaii historian David Stannard describes the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."[275] Yale University's genocide studies program supports this view regarding abuses in Hispaniola.[273] Andrés Reséndez argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola.[276] Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly[277][276] and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did during the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.[276] According to anthropologist Jason Hickel, a third of Arawak workers died every six months from lethal forced labor in the mines.[278] 68% to over 96% of the Taíno population perished under Spanish rule.[273]
Albigensian Crusade (Cathar genocide) Languedoc (now France) 1209 1229 200,000[279] 1,000,000[280]
The Albigensian Crusade was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism, a Christian sect, in Languedoc, in southern France. The Catholic Church considered them heretics and ordered that they should be completely eradicated.[281] Raphael Lemkin referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".[282] Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe it as "the first ideological genocide."[283]

See also

Main article: Outline of Genocide studies

Political extermination campaigns

Notes

  1. ^ Eastern Pygmy population was reduced to 90,000 after a campaign that killed 60,000[20] implying a 40% decline
  2. ^ Unlike other deported peoples who were acknowledged to be distinct ethnic groups and given their national republics back under Khrushchev, the Crimean Tatars were not given the right of return for decades, and in addition were stripped of recognition as a distinct ethnic group as part of a wider campaign pushing for their assimilation in the Fergana valley.[101]
  3. ^ a b Total number of Serbs, Jews and Roma killed. Excluding the Jews sent to the German extermination camps.
  4. ^ Roger Casement reported that a population officially placed at 50,000 had dropped to 7,000 at the lowest estimation, and 10,000 remaining natives with the highest estimation by the time investigations were sent to the Putumayo.[199]
  5. ^ Although ethnic cleansings and massacres began in the early 1800s, particularly under the command of the Tsarist Russian general Grigory Zass, the mass deportations, mass murders and extermination operations — where most deaths occurred — started in 1864.
  6. ^ Only the range of deaths caused by massacred
  7. ^ The total population decline of the period overall
  8. ^
    • Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations."[236]
    • Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide".[237]
    • Sociologist and historian Vahakn Dadrian lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America."[238]
    • Genocide scholar Adam Jones – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 percent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease."[239]
    • Cherokee politician Bill John Baker – "this ruthless [Indian Removal Act] policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions […] amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence."[240]
    • Sociologist James V. Fenelon and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes."[241]
  9. ^
    • Political scientist Michael Rogin – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide."[243]
    • Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing."[244]
    • Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America.[245]
    • Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces."[246]
    • Political scientist Barbara Harff – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. […] Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838-1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people."[247]
    • Legal scholar Rennard Strickland – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names - Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee - and by their tragic poetic codes - the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law - in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"."[248]
    • Legal scholars Christopher Turner and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond reiterate Strickland's assessment.[249]
    • Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs."[250]
    • Historian David Stannard and ethnic studies scholar Ward Churchill have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations.[251][252]
    • Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. […] Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five Lemkin specified genocidal acts."[253]
    • Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide.[254]
    • Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today’s generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears."[255]
    • English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide."[256]
  1. ^ Quote: "To conclude: the Germans committed genocide against the Polish population. The very term genocide comes from the 1944 book of the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin, whose study of Nazi-occupied Europe focused on the German attack on the Poles. Not only did the Nazis seek ultimately to eliminate the Polish nation 'as such', but they engaged in each of the acts identified by the 1949 Genocide Convention as signifiers of the 'intent to destroy'"[124]

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  112. ^ Jones, Adam (2017). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 377. ISBN 9781138823846. 'Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote Alexander Werth', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide.
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  156. ^ American Mythologies: New Essays on Contemporary Literature (DGO - Digital original ed.). Liverpool University Press. 2005. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjbd1. ISBN 978-0-85323-736-5. JSTOR j.ctt5vjbd1. To authorize the Osage terror as genocide and to connect a corner of Oklahoma to a global tribal history, she recreates the Holocaust as a site of hybridity.
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  167. ^ Robertson, Geoffrey (2016). "Armenia and the G-word: The Law and the Politics". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69–83. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3. Put another way – if these same events occurred today, there can be no doubt that prosecutions before the ICC of Talaat and other CUP officials for genocide, for persecution and for other crimes against humanity would succeed. Turkey would be held responsible for genocide and for persecution by the ICJ and would be required to make reparation.14 That Court would also hold Germany responsible for complicity with the genocide and persecution, since it had full knowledge of the massacres and deportations and decided not to use its power and influence over the Ottomans to stop them. But to the overarching legal question that troubles the international community today, namely whether the killings of Armenians in 1915 can properly be described as a genocide, the analysis in this chapter returns are sounding affirmative answer.
  168. ^ Lattanzi, Flavia (2018). "The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation?". The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law. Springer International Publishing. pp. 27–104. ISBN 978-3-319-78169-3. Starting from the claim by the Armenian community and the majority of historians that the 1915–1916 Armenian massacres and deportations constitute genocide as well as Turkey's fierce opposition to such a qualification, this paper investigates the possibility of identifying those massacres and deportations as the destruction of a nation. On the basis of a thorough analysis of the facts and the required mental element, the author shows that a deliberate destruction, in a substantial part, of the Armenian Christian nation as such, took place in those years. To come to this conclusion, this paper borrows the very same determinants as those used in the case-law of the Military Tribunals in occupied Germany, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in genocide cases.
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  208. ^ Hildebrandt, Amber (14 August 2012). "Russia's Sochi Olympics awakens Circassian anger". CBC News. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
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  211. ^ Richmond 2013, p. 132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."
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  214. ^ a b Madley, Benjamin. An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873.
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  216. ^ Kiernan, Ben. "8. Genocide in the United States". Blood and Soil A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. pp. 310–363.
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  220. ^ Ørsted-Jensen 2011.
  221. ^ Gibbons, Ray. "The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide". Academia. Archived from the original on 27 December 2023.
  222. ^ Baldry, Hannah; McKeon, Alisa; McDougal, Scott. "Queensland's Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up to Genocide". QUT Law Review. 15 (1): 92–113. ISSN 2201-7275.
  223. ^ Palmer, Alison (1998). "Colonial and modern genocide: explanations and categories". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 21: 89–115. doi:10.1080/014198798330115.
  224. ^ Kopel, Dave; Gallant, Paul; Eisen, Joanne D. (2003-04-11). "A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of pacifism". National Review.
  225. ^ "Tommy Solomon". Archived from the original on 23 January 2016.
  226. ^ a b "The Genocide". Moriori Genocide. Archived from the original on 11 December 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
  227. ^ King, Michael (2011). The Silence Beyond. Penguin. p. 190. ISBN 978-1459623019.
  228. ^ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui (28 October 2008). "Moriori: The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. NZ Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
  229. ^ King, Michael (2000). Moriori: a People Rediscovered (Revised ed.). Viking. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0-14-010391-0.
  230. ^ King, Michael (1989). Moriori: A People Rediscovered. Auckland: Viking. p. 136.
  231. ^ Nolen, Stephanie. "'We are still here': The fight to be recognized as Indigenous in Uruguay". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
  232. ^ "Pruebas irrefutables demuestran el genocidio de la población charrúa" [Irrefutable evidence demonstrates the genocide of the Charrúa population]. LARED21 (in Spanish). 30 August 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
  233. ^ Albarenga, Pablo (10 November 2017). "Where did Uruguay's indigenous population go?". El País. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
  234. ^ a b Michael, Nicky; Smith, Beverly Jean; Lowe, William (2021). "Reclaiming Social Justice and Human Rights: The 1830 Indian Removal Act and the Ethnic Cleansing of Native American Tribes". Journal of Health and Human Experience. 6 (1): 25–39 [31].
  235. ^ Minges, Patrick (1998). "Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religion, and the Trail of Tears". US Data Repository. Archived from the original on October 11, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  236. ^ Keefe, Thomas E. (13–14 April 2019). Native American Genocide: Realities and Denials. First International Conference of the Center for Holocaust, Genocide & Human Rights Studies, University of North Carolina. Charlotte. p. 21.
  237. ^ Martin Rogers, Janna Lynell (July 2019). Decolonizing Cherokee History 1790-1830s: American Indian Holocaust, Genocidal Resistance, and Survival (MA). Oklahoma State University. p. 63.
  238. ^ Dadrian, Vahakn N. (1975). "A Typology of Genocide". International Review of Modern Sociology. 5 (2): 201–212 [209]. JSTOR 41421531.
  239. ^ Jones, Adam (2006). "The conquest of the Americas". Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-203-34744-7.
  240. ^ Bracey, Earnest N. (2021). "Andrew Jackson, Black American Slavery, and the Trail of Tears: A Critical Analysis". Dialogue and Universalism. 31 (1): 119–138 [128]. doi:10.5840/du20213118.
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  244. ^ Michael, Smith & Lowe 2021, p. 27.
  245. ^ Piecuch, Jim (7 December 2014). "Perspective 1: three Centuries of Genocide". In Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard (eds.). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1610693639.
  246. ^ Basso, Andrew R. (6 March 2016). "Towards a Theory of Displacement Atrocities: The Cherokee Trail of Tears, The Herero Genocide, and The Pontic Greek Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal. 10 (1): 5–29 [15]. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.10.1.1297.
  247. ^ Harff, Barbara (1987). "The Etiology of Genocides". In Wallimann, Isidor; Dobkowski, Michael N. (eds.). The Age of Genocide: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 41.
  248. ^ Strickland, Rennard (1986). "Genocide-at-Law: An Historic and Contemporary View of the North American Experience". University of Kansas Law Review. 713: 719.
  249. ^ Tennant, Christopher C.; Turpel, Mary Ellen (1990). "A Case Study of Indigenous Peoples: Genocide, Ethnocide and Self-determination". Nordic Journal of International Law. 287 (4): 287–319 [296–297]. doi:10.1163/157181090X00387.
  250. ^ Conversa, Maria (2021). "Righting the Wrongs of Native American Removal and Advocating for Tribal Recognition: A Binding Promise, The Trail of Tears, and the Philosophy of Restorative Justice". UIC Law Review. 933. University of Illinois Chicago: 4, 13.
  251. ^ Lewy, Guenter (9 November 2007). "Can there be genocide without the intent to commit genocide?". Journal of Genocide Research. 9 (4): 661–674 [669]. doi:10.1080/14623520701644457.
  252. ^ MacDonald, David B. (2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". Journal of Genocide Research. 17 (4): 411–431 [415]. doi:10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583.
  253. ^ Bowser, Benjamin P.; Word, Carl O.; Shaw, Kate (2021). "Ongoing Genocides and the Need for Healing: The Cases of Native and African Americans". Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal. 15 (3): 83–99 [86]. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.15.3.1785.
  254. ^ French, Laurence (June 1978). "The Death of a Nation". American Indian Journal. 4 (6): 2–9 [2].
  255. ^ Slocum, Melissa Michal (2018). "There Is No Question of American Indian Genocide". Transmotion. 4 (2): 1– 30 [4]. doi:10.22024/UniKent/03/tm.651.
  256. ^ Budhathoki, Thir Bahadur (December 2013). Literary Rendition of Genocide in Cherokee Fiction (MPhil). Tribhuvan University. p. 89.
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  267. ^ 大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年 (in Chinese).
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  269. ^ Wei 1842.
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  272. ^ Moses 2008.
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Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of Genocide studies


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