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Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of behaviour therapy have been identified in various ancient philosophical traditions, particularlyStoicism.[1] For example, Wolpe and Lazarus wrote,

While the modern behavior therapist deliberately applies principles of learning to this therapeutic operations, empirical behavior therapy is probably as old as civilization – if we consider civilization as having begun when man first did things to further the well-being of other men. From the time that this became a feature of human life there must have been occasions when a man complained of his ills to another who advised or persuaded him of a course of action. In a broad sense, this could be called behavior therapy whenever the behavior itself was conceived as the therapeutic agent. Ancient writings contain innumerable behavioral prescriptions that accord with this broad conception of behavior therapy.[2]

The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911. His articleProvisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior".[3] Through early research in the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group.[4] The experimental tradition in clinical psychology[5] used it to refer to psycho-therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research. It has since come to refer mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former). Two related terms are behavior therapy andapplied behavior analysis. Emphasizing the empirical roots of behavior modification, some authors[6] consider it to be broader in scope and to subsume the other two categories of behavior change methods. Since techniques derived from behavioral psychology tend to be the most effective in altering behavior, most practitioners consider behavior modification along with behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis to be founded in behaviorism. While behavior modification encompasses applied behavior analysis and typically uses interventions based on the same behavioral principles, many behavior modifiers who are not applied behavior analysts tend to use packages of interventions and do not conduct functional assessments before intervening.

Possibly the first occurrence of the term "behaviour therapy" was in a 1953 research project by B.F. Skinner,Ogden Lindsley, Nathan H. Azrin andHarry C. Solomon.[7] Other early pioneers in behaviour therapy include Joseph Wolpe and Hans Eysenck.[8]

In general, behaviour therapy is seen as having three distinct points of origin: South Africa (Wolpe's group), The United States (Skinner), and the United Kingdom (Rachman and Eysenck). Each had its own distinct approach to viewing behaviour problems. Eysenck in particular viewed behaviour problems as an interplay between personality characteristics, environment, and behaviour.[9] Skinner's group in the United States took more of an operant conditioning focus. The operant focus created a functional approach to assessment and interventions focused oncontingency management such as the token economyandbehavioural activation. Skinner's student Ogden Lindsleyis credited with forming a movement calledprecision teaching, which developed a particular type of graphing program called the standard celeration chart to monitor the progress of clients. Skinner became interested in the individualising of programs for improved learning in those with or without disabilities and worked with Fred S. Keller to developprogrammed instruction. Programmed instruction had some clinical success in aphasia rehabilitation.[10] Gerald Patterson used programme instruction to develop his parenting text for children with conduct problems.[11] (see Parent Management Training). With age, respondent conditioning appears to slow but operant conditioning remains relatively stable.[12]

While many behaviour therapists remain staunchly committed to the basicoperant and respondent paradigm, in the second half of the 20th century, many therapists coupled behaviour therapy with the cognitive therapy of Aaron Beck andAlbert Ellis, to form cognitive behavioural therapy. In some areas the cognitive component had an additive effect (for example, evidence suggests that cognitive interventions improve the result of social phobia treatment.[13]) but in other areas it did not enhance the treatment, which led to the pursuit of Third Generation Behaviour Therapies. Third generation behaviour therapy uses basic principles of operant and respondent psychology but couples them with functional analysis and a clinical formulation/case conceptualisation of verbal behaviour more inline with view of the behaviour analysts. Some research supports these therapies as being more effective in some cases than cogntive therapy,[14] but overall the question is still in need of answers.[15]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Robertson, D. (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1855757561.
  2. ^ Wolpe, J. & Lazarus, A. (1966) Behavior Therapy Techniques: A Guide to the Treatment of Neuroses, pp. 1–2.
  3. ^ Thorndike, E.L. (1911), "Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning", Animal Intelligence, New York: The McMillian Company
  4. ^ Wolpe (1958)Pyschotheraphy by Reciprocal Inhibition
  5. ^ In A.J. Bachrach (Ed.), Experimental foundations of clinical psychology (pp. 3–25). New York: Basic Books
  6. ^ Martin, G.; Pear, J. (2007). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (Eighth Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0131942271
  7. ^ Lindsley, O.; Skinner, B.F.; Solomon, H.C. (1953). "Studies in behavior therapy (Status Report I)". Walthama, MA.: Metropolitan State Hospital. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Clark, David M. (1997). Science and Practice of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192627260. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Yates, A.J.(1970). Behavior Therapy. New York Wiley
  10. ^ Goldfarb, R. (2006). Operant Conditioning and Programmed Instruction in Aphasia Rehabilitation. SLP-ABA, 1(1), 56–65BAO
  11. ^ Patterson, G.R. (1969). Families: A social learning approach to family life.
  12. ^ Perlmutter, M. & Hall, E. (1985). Adult development and aging. New York: John Wiley.
  13. ^ Clark, David M.; Ehlers, A.; Hackmann, A.; McManus, F.; Fennell, M.; Grey, N.; Waddington, L.; Wild, J. (June 2006). "Cognitive therapy versus exposure and applied relaxation in social phobia: A randomized controlled trial". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 74 (3): 568–78. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.568. PMID 16822113.
  14. ^ Block, J.A. & Wulfert, E. (2000) Acceptance or Change: Treating Socially Anxious College Students with ACT or CBGT. The Behavior Analyst Today, 1(2), 3–10.[1]
  15. ^ Öst, L.G. (2008). "Efficacy of the third wave of behavioral therapies: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Behaviour research and therapy, 46(3), 296–321
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