User:Phlsph7/Mind - Development

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Development[edit]

Evolution[edit]

The mind has a long evolutionary history starting with the development of the nervous system and the brain.[1] While it is generally accepted today that mind is not exclusive to humans and various non-human animals have some form of mind, there is no consensus at which point exactly the mind emerged.[2] The evolution of mind is usually explained in terms of natural selection: genetic variations responsible for new or improved mental capacities, like better perception or social dispositions, have an increased chance of being passed on to future generations if they are beneficial to survival and reproduction.[3]

Minimal forms of information processing are already found in the earliest forms of life 4 to 3.5 billion years ago, like the abilities of bacteria and eukaryotic unicellular organisms to sense the environment, store this information, and react to it. Nerve cells emerged with the development of multicellular organisms more than 600 million years ago as a way to process and transmit information. About 600 to 550 million years ago, an evolutionary bifurcation happened into radially symmetric organisms[a] with ring-shaped nervous systems or a nerve net, like jellyfish, and organisms with bilaterally symmetric bodies, whose nervous systems tend to be more centralized. About 540 million years ago, the bilaterally organized organisms separated into invertebrates and vertebrates. All vertebrates, like birds and mammals, have a central nervous system including a complex brain with specialized functions while invertebrates, like clams and insects, either have no brains or tend to have simple brains.[5] With the evolution of vertebrates, their brains tended to grow and the specialization of the different brain areas tended to increase. These developments are closely related to changes in limb structures, sense organs, and living conditions with a close correspondence between the size of a brain area and the importance of its function to the organism.[6] An important step in the evolution of mammals about 200 million years ago was the development of the neocortex, which is responsible for many higher-order brain functions.[7]

The size of the brain relative to the body further increased with the development of primates, like monkeys, about 65 million years ago and later with the emergence of the first hominins about 7–5 million years ago.[8] Anatomically modern humans appeared about 200,000 years ago.[9] Various theories of the evolutionary processes responsible for human intelligence have been proposed. The social intelligence hypothesis says that the evolution of the human mind was triggered by the increased importance of social life and its emphasis on mental abilities associated with empathy, knowledge transfer, and meta-cognition. According to the ecological intelligence hypothesis, the main value of the increased mental capacities comes from their advantages in dealing with a complex physical environment through processes like behavioral flexibility, learning, and tool use. Other suggested mechanisms include the effects of a changed diet with energy-rich food and general benefits from an increased speed and efficiency of information processing.[10]

Individual[edit]

Besides the development of mind in general in the course of history, there is also the development of individual human minds. Some of the individual changes vary from person to person as a form of learning from experience, like forming specific memories or acquiring particular behavioral patterns. Others are more universal developments as psychological stages that all or most humans go through as they pass through early childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.[11] These developments cover various areas, including intellectual, sensorimotor, linguistic, emotional, social, and moral developments.[12] Some factors affect the development of mind before birth, such as nutrition, maternal stress, and exposure to harmful substances like alcohol during pregnancy.[13]

Early childhood is marked by rapid developments as infants learn voluntary control over their bodies and interact with their environment on a basic level. Typically after about one year, this covers abilities like walking, recognizing familiar faces, and producing individual words.[14] On the emotional and social levels, they develop attachments with their primary caretakers and express emotions ranging from joy to anger, fear, and surprise.[15] An influential theory by Jean Piaget divides the cognitive development of children into four stages. The sensorimotor stage from birth until two years is concerned with sensory impressions and motor activities while learning that objects remain in existence even when not observed. In the preoperational stage until seven years, children learn to interpret and use symbols in an intuitive manner. They start employing logical reasoning to physical objects in the concrete operational stage until eleven years and extend this capacity in the following formal operational stage to abstract ideas as well as probabilities and possibilities.[16] Other important processes shaping the mind in this period are socialization and enculturation, at first through primary caretakers and later through peers and the schooling system.[17]

Psychological changes during adolescence are provoked both by physiological changes and being confronted with a different social situation and new expectations from others. An important factor in this period is change to the self-concept, which can take the form of an identity crisis. This process often involves developing individuality and independence from parents while at the same time seeking closeness and conformity with friends and peers. Further developments in this period include improvements to the reasoning ability and the formation of a principled moral view point.[18]

The mind also changes during adulthood but in a less rapid and pronounced manner. Reasoning and problem-solving skills improve during early and middle adulthood. Some people experience the mid-life transition as a midlife crisis involving an inner conflict about personal identity, often associated with anxiety, a sense of lack of accomplishments in life, and an awareness of mortality. Intellectual faculties tend to decline in later adulthood, specifically the ability to learn complex unfamiliar tasks and later also the ability to remember, while people tend to become more inward-looking and cautious.[19]


Notes[edit]

  1. ^ They include cnidarians and ctenophorans.[4]

Sources[edit]

  • Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9.
  • Berman, Steven L.; Weems, Carl F.; Stickle, Timothy R. (2006). "Existential Anxiety in Adolescents: Prevalence, Structure, Association with Psychological Symptoms and Identity Development". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 35 (3). doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9032-y.
  • Harrell, Stevan (2018). Human Families. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8133-3622-0.
  • Driscoll, Joan Riley; Easterbrooks, M. Ann (2007). "Development, Emotional". In Cochran, Moncrieff; New, Rebecca S. (eds.). Early Childhood Education: An International Encyclopedia [4 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0-313-01448-2.
  • Freeman, Derek (1975). "Kinship, Attachment Behaviour and the Primary Bond". In Goody, Jack (ed.). The Character of Kinship. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29002-9.
  • Packer, Martin J. (2017). Child Development: Understanding A Cultural Perspective. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5264-1311-6.
  • Smitsman, Ad W.; Corbetta, Daniela (2011). "Action in Infancy – Perspectives, Concepts, and Challenges". In Bremner, J. Gavin; Wachs, Theodore D. (eds.). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development, Volume 1: Basic Research. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5183-5.
  • Coall, David A.; Callan, Anna C.; Dickins, Thomas E.; Chisholm, James S. (2015). "Evolution and Prenatal Development: An Evolutionary Perspective". Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Socioemotional Processes. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-95387-7.
  • Abel, Ernest L. (2003). "Fetal Alcohol Syndrome". In Blocker, Jack S.; Fahey, David M.; Tyrrell, Ian R. (eds.). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-57607-834-1.
  • Oakley, Lisa (2004). Cognitive Development. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-54743-2.
  • Yeomans, Jane; Arnold, Christopher (2013). "Child Development". Teaching, Learning and Psychology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-05633-9.
  • Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca (2016). "Humans Evolve". Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now [Hardcover] [Oct 02, 2016] Dk. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-241-22590-5.
  • Reyes, Laura D.; Sherwood, Chet C. (2014). "Neuroscience and Human Brain Evolution". In Bruner, Emiliano (ed.). Human Paleoneurology. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-08500-5.
  • Mandalaywala, Tara; Fleener, Christine; Maestripieri, Dario (2014). "Intelligence in Nonhuman Primates". In Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A. (eds.). Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4939-1562-0.



  1. ^ Roth 2013, p. 3
  2. ^ Hatfield 2013, pp. 3–4
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  4. ^ Roth 2013, p. 265–266
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