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Education in Kashmir

Education is Kashmir has a long colonial history and the state has been part of a dispute been India, Pakistan and China since the mid 20^th century. Human rights abuses and presence of conflict affect the provision of education as the Right to Education act has not been extended to Jammu and Kashmir. A prolonged history of conflict in the state has created barriers to education for the majority of the population. Kashmir’s population has an adult literacy rate of 67.17% which is below world regional standards. Kashmir’s modern education system emerged in the second half of the 19^th century with the advent of Christian missionaries who made pioneering efforts to educate Hindu and Muslim Kashmiris on the pattern of European education.

Jammu and Kashmir State Education profile

Source: School of Education Department Government of Jammu & Kashmir
Male literacy rate	78.26%
Female literacy rate	58.01%
Urban literacy rate	68.75%
Rural literacy rate	53.61%
Number of Primary schools	14171
Number of Upper Primary schools	6665
Number of High Schools	1194
Number of Higher Secondary schools	597
Number of Sainik Schools	2
District Institute of Education (DIETs)	22
State Institute of Education (SIEs)	2
Number of KGBVs (girls schools)	79

Administration

Education falls under the control of the Indian government and the constitution of India, although the provision of education is widely affected by the state violence. The revision of special status, or autonomy in 2019 under article 370, has widely impacted access to education within Kashmir. Conflict in the Kashmir region is the biggest obstruction to education, with consequences such as damages to schools and interruptions too teaching. Recruitment of children for militia is a substantial issue in Kashmir, increased militarisation of school areas can lead to negative psychological impacts on children, affecting pathways to even basic education. Governments need to prioritise safe access to education even if it is only at primary level, alongside the de-escalation of conflict through safe school’s declaration. The Jammu and Kashmir State Board of School Education is responsible for managing the education system in Kashmir. The governing board is comprised of the Chairman of Jammu and Kashmir State board of education, a director of school education for both the Jammu and Kashmir regions, four government nominated teachers (two female concerned with girls education, two male concerned with boys), a government nominated eminent educationist, a teacher trainings institution representative and two persons nominated by Government one male, one female from among principals of teaching institutions in the state. The central board is primarily responsible for the specification of the courses of instruction and create syllabi for them, to select textbooks and examinations for all education levels and to grant diplomas or certificates to those who have passed.

History

Tyndale Biscoe School in Srinagar, Kashmir.

The modern education system was introduced in Kashmir at the end of the 19th century by Christian missionaries. Education in Jammu and Kashmir is modelled on the British education system a product of colonialism. The initial modernised Western boys school was founded in 1880 in the grounds of a missionary hospital in Srinagar. Founded as the Church Mission Society Boys School it is now called the Tyndale Biscoe School named after a British missionary who is credited for founding the modern education system in Kashmir. The school to this day is one of the foremost educational institutions in Srinagar and has played an important and positive role in bringing in and spreading modern education in Kashmir. The following decade saw the founding of a girls school by a missionary from the British Church Mission, but interest in female education was sparse. It regained momentum in the early 20th century when 17 students enrolled in a Church Mission Society Girls School.

Christian missionary Tyndale Biscoe.

Stages of education

Primary education

The percentage of children enrolled in primary education is low compared to neighbouring country Pakistan. Kashmiri primary education has a 35% drop out rate. The states general education system was structured the same as Pakistan's, students were enrolled at pre school for 2 years, primary level for 5 years, middle level 3 years, secondary level 2 years and higher secondary level 2 years. The New Educational Policy (2020) changed this structure to the 5+3+3+4 educational system. From middle level education single sex schools are desired by the community. The curriculum varies between institutions but the most common studied disciplines are:

• English
• Mathematics
• Environmental studied (EVS)
• Urdu

The AJK Primary education system is categorised into three kinds of school, Public, Private and Deeni Madrasas. Deeni Madrasas are concentrated in religious education and most of them are privately managed. The private schools are self-sustaining; they are dependent on mandatory fees paid by students. The government or private agencies do not give private schools any financial support.

Secondary education

Secondary education in Kashmir begins in grade nine and lasts four years up until grade twelve. Students will enter ninth class at the age of fifteen and graduate high school at the age of eighteen. Annually, at the end of high school, students are required to pass either SSC exams (10th grade) or HSC exams (12th grade) that are conducted by Jammu and Kashmir State Board of Education (JKBOSE). Exams can run for as long as two months beginning in February and can last up to March in the Jammu sector. In 2020, more than 53,000 students appeared for the JKBOSE 10th board exam for the summer zone.

The state level university entrance exams are mandatory post graduation of 12th grade. The Department of Higher Education controls the admittance to universities and colleges in Jammu and Kashmir. Kashmir has eight state universities that impart higher education in disciplines like the Arts, Science and Commerce. Universities like these conduct course specific exams every semester to asses students progress. Some state universities conduct entrance tests to shortlist mass applicants.

JKBOSE has implemented various different scholarships to support increased numbers of students attaining higher education. A merit-based system, JKBOSE facilitates orientation programmes for students to explore educational opportunities and prosper academically. JKBOSE state it allows students who are hindered economically, politically or socially to accessed academic scholarships in a constrained atmosphere. Scholarships that are on offer include:

• National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship (NMMS)
• National Scholarship Scheme (NSS)
• Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research
• National Talent Scholarship Scheme (NTS)

Types of schools

Government vs Private

The government of Jammu and Kashmir are reforming government schools to intensify the move towards universalising state primary education. The majority of students that attend government schools are those who live in rural areas and struggle economically. UNICEF have reported that children from poorer economic backgrounds perform lower than their peers from wealthier backgrounds in terms of educational outputs. The Right to Education Bill has recently been passed in by the Kashmiri Government. The passing of this bill has increased in enrolment and education provision. ASER show an obvious rising trend in the enrolment of private schools under the Right to Education Act, all schools including self-sufficient private schools will have to reserve 25% of their seats of economically challenged students . The abrogation of Article 370 in 2019 revised Kashmir's exemption from the Right to Education act.

Private schooling in Kashmir is the prime provider of primary education as it occupies a significant share of school children. Private school attendance is not limited to more fortunate economic students, rural residing poorer students also attend private school institutions. The enrolment in private schools has increased from 32.9% to 34.7% between 2011 and 2013. Simultaneously enrolment in government schools has decreased following the establishment of private schools. Kashmir's best private school institutions include Burn Hall, Tyndale Biscoe, Delhi Public School, New Era, Minto Circle and Mallinson. Private schools receive new Educational Policies each year but they are not made available to government sector schools. Private schools are attractive to perspective parents because according to research the government school system is expensive, wasteful, and unsuccessful in recounting even minimum transferable skills to students. Private schools not only provide high quality education but overall at a lower unit cost.

Non-governmental work in education

NGOs are a significant stakeholder in providing education across the State of Kashmir. Due to the instability of government provided education and the social and political environment of the state NGOs often adopt the roles of schools to provide education in communities. Examples of NGOs in Kashmir include Sahuliyat Kashmir, Pratham Education Foundation and the Serving Nations (NGO).

Sahuliyat Kashmir works towards youth development, education, healthcare and work towards raising awareness about a variety of social issues in all districts of Kashmir. The Serving Nations NGO conducts door to door awareness campaigns and sanitation drives in the district not directly providing school level education but supporting families with organisational activities that contribute to the betterment of society.

The Pratham Education Foundation (PEF) helps develop contextualised life skills and interventions in conflict affected areas. NGOs support more than just school level education, PEF works to support children and families in developing life skills that help navigate the everyday challenges they face. Life skills consist of psychological and interpersonal skills that promote psychosocial wellbeing. The unsteady social and political environment of Kashmir coupled with the Covid-19 pandemic increased the requirement of NGO intervention. The Director of School Education Kashmir enlisted 20 NGOs at state, zonal and district levels to improve academic standards and assist in teach training programmes.

Gender disparity

Kashmir has an intensely patriarchal society. Throughout Kashmir's education system, there is apparent gender disparity between males and females. Jammu and Kashmir's social economic and political conditions further increase gender disparity as women have had to fight inequality and constant discrimination. Since the insurgency in 1998 women have been at increased risk of rape as a weapon of war.

Traditionally women's roles are primarily domestic and female access to education have been limited. The 2011 census depicts the disparity between male and female education with the male literacy rate standing at 76.75% whilst the female is at 56.43%. Despite the increase in percentage from 2001, (male literacy rate 66.6% and female 43%) the disparity has remained consistent. The decline in gender gap in literacy is a positive sign for the improvement of female access to education although females are still in a disadvantageous position than their male counterparts.

In many rural areas, the birth of a son is celebrated; the birth of a daughter is not. Males are seen as more valuable because of their position enables them to get a job and help support a family; females are seen as an expense, since they will marry and leave home.

Article 10 of the United Nations General Assembly's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women recognises that such gender inequality can be eliminated only by education . The government of Jammu and Kashmir, has asserted that gender disparity in education must be removed for women, and as a result has launched a number of initiatives to increase female enrolment and employment as teachers.

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) are all girls schools primarily meant for girls that come from disadvantaged communities. There is a total of 79 KGBVs across the state of Kashmir. KGBVs are an important scheme in closing the gender gap and improving education for females as it is meant for uplifting girls who belong to rural and or marginalised groups that have dropped out of education . Children that meet the following criteria are given priority to seats in KGBVs:

• Girls who have dropped out or never enrolled in school
• Orphans and those with only one parent
• Children from the BPL category

The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) is another example of a programme that works to encourage female enrolment into education. Founded in 2003, the NPEGEL is a focussed intervention aimed to reach the hardest to reach girls a component of the SSA it aims to reduce the gender gap in education, ensure greater participation of women and girls in all aspects of the educational field, improve quality pf education and stresses the relevance of the quality of female education for feminine empowerment.

Distance learning

During the Covid-19 pandemic, education in Kashmir came to a halt. The School Education Department launched initiatives to ensure students did not go without education. Government zoom classes were provided but obstacles such as lack of internet connection, access to a smartphones or laptop and no network coverage affected the scheme.

Following the unsuccessful zoom classes the education department instigated a new scheme the Learning Management System. The Learning Management System registered all students and teachers under the initiative wherein all resources, study materials and assessments were uploaded and could be accessed by students at any time. The instructional videos were in English and the pedagogy resulted in unmotivated students. Digital education was implemented in many educational institutions across the state in a bid to efficiently utilise time.

As the end of the academic year approach the government implemented a new scheme of community classes. Teachers and volunteers gathered in open air spaces without modern technology to aid them because they were passionate about educated their students.

Barriers to education

India, Pakistan conflict

In August 2019, Article 370 of the Indian constitution that applied to Jammu and Kashmir was abrogated. The repeal of this article revised Kashmir's partial autonomy as a state. As a way to restrain anticipated unrest within the state the Indian government blocked both internet and phone lines. Coupled with the necessity for online learning as a result of Covid-19 pandemic barriers to education were extensive in Kashmir. Between 2019 - 2020 schools in Kashmir were open and fully functioning for as little as 100 days.

The conflict between Pakistan and India has continued for decades. It has resulted in constant school closures, militant attacks on schools and assaults on pupils. According to the Pakistan Ka Khuda Hafiz in 2014 heavy shelling by Indian forces on the Sialkot border caused the closure of 120 schools. Further unrest in 2016 led to the closure of approximately 300 schools.

School closures as a result of the conflict have had a direct impact on the quality of education provision. A decrease in the amount of open education institutions causes oversubscription to those that are open this the amount of students in classrooms has increased significantly. As reported by Relief International, remaining schools have become overexposed to impacts of the conflict and sanitation systems in schools have declined as a result.

The ongoing conflict not only disrupts education, it affects quality of learning and the mental and physical health of students. Even prior to the disruption caused by the pandemic, in 2016 students were only able to attend school for 4 months of the year . Less than 50% of the curriculum was covered that year. In response to school closures the Indian government relaxed examinations at the end of the academic year.

The India, Pakistan conflict has regularly exposed students to violence and fear, in turn this has had an effect on their mental wellbeing. In Kashmir, many schools are not equipped to deal with mental and physical disabilities. Children who have been physically affected by the violence have been denied the right to an education. According to the 2014 report on inclusiveness of educational facilities for children with disabilities in AJK, 71.5% of schools do not have sufficient bathroom facilities to accommodate students with disabilities and only 9% of the sampled schools have ramps at the entrance. The militarisation of the region has caused increased rates of sexual assault, which encourages families to keep girls at home.

Lack of physical access

Majority of schools are located in private buildings, environments not originally planned for educational purposes. The same room often functions as a classroom, teachers office, cloakroom. Currently 66% of primary schools and 55% of middle level schools are accommodated in privately rented buildings.

Especially in times of remote learning during the Covid-19 crisis, students that live in rural areas were affected disproportionately. Roughly 27.21% of the state of Kashmir live in rural areas. Reported by the National Statistical Office survey, only 8.4% and 2.8% of males and females in Kashmir, respectively have graduate level education and above in rural areas. It reports that 86.5% of primary level schools are at a distance less than 1km from households whereas 76.2 of middle level and 29.5% of secondary level schools are at a distance of less than 1km away from the (rural) household.

Lack of quality teachers

The quality of teachers is poor in Kashmir because the qualification requirements to become a primary level teacher are low. There is evidence to suggest pupil achievement is interlinked with the number of years of formal education their teacher has had. Furthermore, in the private education sector teachers are struck with lack of governmental support, qualified teachers are paid lower salaries compared to those who teach in the government sector. High pupil teacher ratio's as a result of the dearth of teaching staff obstructs access to a quality education. According to Shah you can find two to three teachers in a primary school which have five classes with enrolment of more than 150 students on average.

Policies and programmes to increase student educational outputs in the Kashmir region

Medium of instruction

According to the education review the lack of moral and ethical content in the educational curriculum coupled with the absence of the mother tongue as a medium of instruction negatively effects children learning experiences. The adoption of a modern education system was at the cost of indigenous language and identity. In multiple Gujarati and Pahari speaking areas the medium of instruction in schools is English and students are forced to read Kashmir language at the cos of their own identity. The medium of instruction in mother tongue is imperative to develop the Kashmiri education system, the United Nations recognises the languages and multilingualism advance inclusive and the Sustainable Development Goals. The UN believes that education in the mother tongue "combined with quality teaching of the official language, is more cost-effective in the long term; reduces dropout rates; leads to noticeably better academic results, and leads to greater family and community involvement" . It has been acknowledged that changes to the curriculum and examinations should be made to make the educational system more justifiably assessed.

Mid Day Meal scheme

The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Education (the mid-day meal scheme) was launched in the Kashmir State at the start of the academic year in 2004 with an objective to give a boost to Universalization of Primary Education by increasing enrolment, retention and attendance.

Conditions of SIEs / DIETs

There is a lack of coordination between SIEs and JKBOSE. Increased attention to formations of curriculum and finances is required. In 2020 the National education Policy was introduced to create change within education in Kashmir State. The policy was founded on the pillars of “access, equity, quality, affordability, accountability”. A stated by the Borgen project the effectiveness of the programme depends on its implementation alongside a reframing of the curriculum.

To increase student educational enrolments and outputs Kashmir require a reframing of its curriculum. The Fifth National Curriculum Framework (NCF) is to be framed by the NCERT, New Delhi in response to this issue. The NCF constitutes a guideline for syllabus, textbooks, teacher training programmes for the schools in India.